Accounting Ratios: Definitions, Types, and Formulas
- Accounting ratios are numerical tools derived from financial statements that show the relationship between key financial figures and help assess a business's financial health.
- The five main categories of accounting ratios are Liquidity, Profitability, Solvency / Leverage, Efficiency / Activity, and Market / Valuation ratios.
- The most commonly used accounting ratios include the Current Ratio, Quick Ratio, Net Profit Margin, ROE, ROCE, Debt-to-Equity Ratio, Interest Coverage Ratio, Inventory Turnover Ratio, Debtors Turnover Ratio, and Cash Conversion Cycle.
- DuPont Analysis breaks ROE into net profit margin, asset turnover, and equity multiplier to show what is driving shareholder returns.
- The Cash Conversion Cycle measures how many days it takes to convert inventory and receivables into cash after adjusting for supplier credit. A lower CCC usually indicates better working capital efficiency.
- Ratios should not be interpreted in isolation. They should be compared with past performance, peer companies, and the relevant industry context.
- For companies following Ind AS, ratio analysis requires additional care because standards such as Ind AS 116, Ind AS 115, and Ind AS 109 can affect EBITDA, liabilities, revenue timing, profit, and return ratios.
- Ratio analysis has limitations because results can be affected by window dressing, accounting policy differences, inflation, one-time items, and sector-specific business models.
What Are Accounting Ratios?
Accounting ratios, also called financial ratios, are mathematical expressions derived from a company's financial statements - the Balance Sheet, Statement of Profit and Loss, and Cash Flow Statement - that express the quantitative relationship between two or more financial variables. The purpose of ratios is to make financial data comparable and meaningful.
For example, comparing ₹50 crore profit at Company A with ₹8 crore profit at Company B tells you little without knowing the revenue base, capital employed, and asset base. A net profit margin of 8% versus 16% or an ROCE of 10% versus 22% tells you much more.
Comparing financial performance across companies of different sizes, industries, or time periods becomes possible only when numbers are expressed as ratios.
A useful accounting ratio has three characteristics:
- It is derived from reliable financial data.
- It is compared against a reference point such as past performance, peers, or industry norms.
- It is interpreted in context, not in isolation.
Accounting ratios are used in audits, credit assessments by banks, investment analysis, internal management review, and financial due diligence.
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Why Accounting Ratios Matter - Stakeholders and Use Cases
| Stakeholder | Primary Ratios Used | Decision Driven By |
|---|---|---|
| Equity investors | ROE, EPS, P/E, P/B, Net Profit Margin | Buy, hold, or sell decision |
| Banks and lenders | Current Ratio, Debt-to-Equity, Interest Coverage, DSCR | Lending decision and loan covenants |
| Trade creditors | Current Ratio, Quick Ratio, Debtors Turnover | Credit limit and payment terms |
| Management | ROCE, Asset Turnover, Operating Margin, Working Capital Ratios | Strategy, cost control, and capital allocation |
| Statutory auditors | Multiple categories depending on context | Analytical review and going concern assessment |
| Tax and regulatory reviewers | Gross Profit Ratio, Net Profit Ratio, turnover and trend comparisons | Deviation analysis and scrutiny support |
| Rating agencies | Debt-to-EBITDA, Interest Coverage, cash flow ratios | Credit rating determination |
| Competitors and industry analysts | Efficiency ratios and margin ratios | Competitive benchmarking |
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Classification of Accounting Ratios
| Category | What It Measures | Key Question Answered |
|---|---|---|
| Liquidity Ratios | Short-term solvency and ability to pay current obligations | Can the business pay its short-term bills? |
| Profitability Ratios | Ability to generate profit relative to revenue, assets, equity, or capital employed | How efficiently does the business earn? |
| Solvency / Leverage Ratios | Long-term financial stability and debt burden | Is the business over-leveraged for the long term? |
| Efficiency / Activity Ratios | Productivity of assets, inventory, receivables, and payables | How well does the business manage its resources? |
| Market / Valuation Ratios | Market value relative to earnings, book value, or sales | Is the stock cheap or expensive relative to fundamentals? |
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Liquidity Ratios
Liquidity ratios measure a company's ability to meet its short-term obligations, generally those falling due within one year, using short-term assets or operating cash generation.
1. Current Ratio
Formula: Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
What it measures: Whether the company has enough current assets to cover liabilities due within the operating cycle or within one year.
Interpretation:
- Above 2:1 - Traditionally considered comfortable in many businesses
- Between 1:1 and 2:1 - Often acceptable, depending on industry and working capital cycle
- Below 1:1 - Current liabilities exceed current assets, which can indicate liquidity pressure
Example: Current Assets = ₹3,00,000; Current Liabilities = ₹2,00,000 → Current Ratio = 1.5:1
Limitation: A high current ratio is not always positive. A ratio of 5:1 may indicate excess idle cash, slow-moving inventory, or poor working capital deployment.
2. Quick Ratio (Acid Test Ratio)
Formula: Quick Ratio = (Current Assets - Inventory - Prepaid Expenses) ÷ Current Liabilities
Also expressed as: Quick Ratio = (Cash + Cash Equivalents + Short-term Investments + Trade Receivables ) ÷ Current Liabilities
What it measures: Liquidity after excluding inventory and prepaid expenses.
Interpretation:
- 1:1 or above - Usually considered comfortable
- Below 1:1 - May indicate reliance on inventory conversion to meet current obligations
Example: Current Assets ₹3,00,000; Inventory ₹80,000; Prepaid ₹20,000; Current Liabilities ₹2,00,000 → Quick Ratio = (3,00,000 - 80,000 - 20,000) ÷ 2,00,000 = 1.0:1
3. Cash Ratio (Absolute Liquidity Ratio)
Formula: Cash Ratio = (Cash + Cash Equivalents + Short-term Marketable Securities) ÷ Current Liabilities
What it measures: The most conservative liquidity measure, using only immediately available liquid resources.
Interpretation:
- Around 0.5:1 or above - Usually comfortable
- Very high cash ratios - May indicate excess idle cash
- Very low cash ratios - Not always alarming if cash generation is strong and working capital turns quickly
Use case: Used in conservative liquidity analysis and stress assessment.
4. Operating Cash Flow Ratio
Formula: Operating Cash Flow Ratio = Cash Flow from Operations ÷ Current Liabilities
What it measures: Whether operating cash generation is sufficient to cover current liabilities.
Why it matters: A company can show a healthy Current Ratio and still face cash stress if receivables are slow or profits are not converting into cash. This ratio helps detect that gap.
Profitability Ratios
Profitability ratios measure how effectively a business converts revenue, assets, equity, or capital into profit.
1. Gross Profit Margin
Formula: Gross Profit Margin = Gross Profit ÷ Revenue × 100
Also: Gross Profit Ratio = Gross Profit ÷ Net Sales × 100
What it measures: The percentage of revenue remaining after deducting direct production or purchase costs.
Interpretation: A higher gross margin can indicate stronger pricing power, better procurement, better product mix, or superior operating efficiency at the gross level. A falling gross margin can signal rising input costs, discounting pressure, or weaker pricing power.
Illustrative ranges by business type:
- Software and technology services - often high gross margins
- FMCG - moderate to high gross margins
- Manufacturing - usually moderate
- Trading businesses - usually lower
- Retail - often moderate depending on category
Example: Revenue ₹10,00,000; COGS ₹6,50,000 → Gross Profit ₹3,50,000 → Gross Profit Margin = 35%
2. Net Profit Margin
Formula: Net Profit Margin = Net Profit After Tax ÷ Revenue × 100
What it measures: The percentage of revenue that becomes bottom-line profit after all costs, including depreciation, interest, and tax.
Example: Net Profit ₹1,50,000; Revenue ₹10,00,000 → Net Profit Margin = 15%
3. Operating Profit Margin (EBIT Margin)
Formula: Operating Profit Margin = EBIT ÷ Revenue × 100
EBIT = Earnings Before Interest and Tax
What it measures: Profitability from core business operations before financing and tax.
EBITDA Margin: EBITDA ÷ Revenue × 100
Ind AS impact: Under Ind AS 116, lease accounting can increase EBITDA because lease rent is replaced by depreciation and finance cost. That improves EBITDA presentation, but not the economic reality of the business.
4. Return on Assets (ROA)
Formula: ROA = Net Profit After Tax ÷ Average Total Assets × 100
What it measures: How efficiently the company uses its asset base to generate profit.
Interpretation:
- Higher ROA usually means better asset productivity
- Compare it with sector norms and business model
- Average assets are generally better than year-end assets for ratio calculation
Example: Net Profit ₹1,50,000; Average Total Assets ₹15,00,000 → ROA = 10%
5. Return on Equity (ROE)
Formula: ROE = Net Profit After Tax ÷ Average Shareholders' Equity × 100
What it measures: Return generated for equity shareholders on their invested capital.
Interpretation: Strong ROE can indicate efficient profit generation, but it can also be increased by leverage. That is why ROE should be read with Debt-to-Equity and DuPont analysis.
6. Return on Capital Employed (ROCE)
Formula: ROCE = EBIT ÷ Capital Employed × 100
Capital Employed = Total Assets - Current Liabilities
A commonly used alternative expression is:
Capital Employed = Equity + Long-term Debt
What it measures: Efficiency in generating operating profit from long-term capital committed to the business.
Why ROCE is important: For capital-intensive businesses, ROCE is often more useful than ROE because it captures returns on the full long-term capital base, not just equity.
7. Return on Investment (ROI)
Formula: ROI = (Net Gain from Investment - Cost of Investment) ÷ Cost of Investment × 100
Use case: Commonly used for projects, machines, marketing campaigns, or one-off investment decisions rather than overall company analysis.
Solvency and Leverage Ratios
Solvency ratios measure whether a business can meet its long-term obligations and whether its capital structure is sustainable.
1. Debt-to-Equity Ratio (D/E Ratio)
Formula: Debt-to-Equity Ratio = Total Interest-bearing Debt ÷ Shareholders' Equity
What counts as debt: Long-term borrowings, short-term borrowings, current maturities of long-term debt, and other interest-bearing borrowings. Trade payables are generally not included in Debt-to-Equity.
Interpretation:
- Below 1:1 - Conservative leverage in many businesses
- Around 1:1 to 2:1 - Moderate leverage, depending on the industry
- Above 2:1 - Higher financial risk in many sectors, though some capital-intensive industries can sustain more
Industry context: Infrastructure, utilities, real estate, telecom, and metals often carry higher leverage than IT services, consulting, or asset-light consumer businesses.
Example: Total Debt ₹10,00,000; Equity ₹8,00,000 → D/E = 1.25:1
2. Liabilities to Assets Ratio
Formula: Liabilities to Assets Ratio = Total Liabilities ÷ Total Assets
What it measures: The proportion of assets financed by liabilities.
Interpretation:
- Below 0.5 - Less than half of assets financed by liabilities
- Above 0.7 - High dependence on liabilities
This ratio is broader than Debt-to-Equity because it includes non-interest-bearing liabilities as well.
3. Proprietary Ratio (Equity Ratio)
Formula: Proprietary Ratio = Shareholders' Equity ÷ Total Assets
What it measures: The proportion of total assets financed by owners' funds.
Interpretation: A higher proprietary ratio indicates lower dependence on outside financing and a stronger equity cushion.
4. Interest Coverage Ratio (Times Interest Earned)
Formula: Interest Coverage Ratio = EBIT ÷ Interest Expense
Interpretation:
- Above 3 times - Generally comfortable
- 1.5 to 3 times - Lower buffer, needs monitoring
- Below 1.5 times - Weak ability to service interest
Example: EBIT ₹6,00,000; Interest Expense ₹2,00,000 → Interest Coverage = 3 times
5. Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR)
Formula: DSCR = Net Operating Income ÷ Total Debt Service
Total Debt Service = Principal Repayment + Interest during the period
Why banks use it: DSCR is widely used in project finance and term loan assessment because it measures the ability to service both interest and principal from operating income.
Example: Net Operating Income ₹25,00,000; Annual Principal ₹10,00,000; Annual Interest ₹5,00,000 → DSCR = 25,00,000 ÷ 15,00,000 = 1.67 times
6. Capital Gearing Ratio
Formula: Capital Gearing Ratio = Fixed Charge Bearing Funds ÷ Equity Shareholders' Funds
A broader teaching version is sometimes shown as long-term debt with fixed charges relative to capital employed.
What it measures: The extent to which the long-term capital structure consists of fixed return or fixed charge funds such as loans, debentures, and preference shares.
Interpretation:
- Highly geared - Greater dependence on fixed charge capital
- Low geared - Greater dependence on equity capital
Efficiency and Activity Ratios
Efficiency ratios measure how productively a company uses assets and working capital to generate revenue.
1. Asset Turnover Ratio
Formula: Asset Turnover = Net Sales ÷ Average Total Assets
What it measures: Revenue generated per rupee of total assets deployed.
Interpretation: Higher is usually better, but the right level depends heavily on the business model. Trading and retail businesses often have higher asset turnover than capital-intensive manufacturers.
Example: Net Sales ₹20,00,000; Average Total Assets ₹15,00,000 → Asset Turnover = 1.33 times
2. Fixed Asset Turnover Ratio
Formula: Fixed Asset Turnover = Net Sales ÷ Average Net Fixed Assets
What it measures: Revenue generated per rupee invested in fixed assets.
3. Inventory Turnover Ratio
Formula: Inventory Turnover = Cost of Goods Sold ÷ Average Inventory
What it measures: How many times inventory is sold and replaced during a period.
Days Inventory Outstanding (DIO): DIO = 365 ÷ Inventory Turnover
Example: COGS ₹12,00,000; Average Inventory ₹2,00,000 → Inventory Turnover = 6 times; DIO = 365 ÷ 6 = 61 days
4. Debtors Turnover Ratio (Accounts Receivable Turnover)
Formula: Debtors Turnover = Net Credit Sales ÷ Average Trade Receivables
What it measures: How quickly the company collects money from customers.
Days Sales Outstanding (DSO): DSO = 365 ÷ Debtors Turnover
Example: Net Credit Sales ₹18,00,000; Average Debtors ₹3,00,000 → Debtors Turnover = 6 times; DSO = 365 ÷ 6 = 61 days
Interpretation: A high DSO usually indicates slower collections and greater working capital lock-up.
5. Creditors Turnover Ratio (Accounts Payable Turnover)
Formula: Creditors Turnover = Net Credit Purchases ÷ Average Trade Payables
Days Payable Outstanding (DPO): DPO = 365 ÷ Creditors Turnover
Example: Net Credit Purchases ₹10,00,000; Average Creditors ₹1,50,000 → Creditors Turnover = 6.67 times; DPO = 365 ÷ 6.67 = 55 days
Interpretation: A longer payable cycle supports working capital, but excessive delay can harm supplier relationships or credit terms.
6. Working Capital Turnover Ratio
Formula: Working Capital Turnover = Net Sales ÷ Net Working Capital
Net Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
What it measures: How efficiently the company uses net working capital to generate sales.
Market and Valuation Ratios - Complete Coverage
Market ratios are relevant mainly for listed companies because they combine market price data with financial statement figures.
1. Price-to-Earnings Ratio (P/E Ratio)
Formula: P/E Ratio = Market Price per Share ÷ Earnings per Share (EPS)
Interpretation:
- A P/E of 25 means investors are paying ₹25 for every ₹1 of current earnings
- A high P/E can reflect growth expectations, strong quality, scarcity value, or overvaluation
- A low P/E can reflect undervaluation, weak growth expectations, cyclical pressure, or business risk
P/E ratios vary substantially by sector, interest rate cycle, earnings outlook, and overall market sentiment. They should be compared with the company's own history, peers, and broader market conditions.
2. Earnings per Share (EPS)
Formula: Basic EPS = (Net Profit After Tax - Preference Dividends) ÷ Weighted Average Number of Equity Shares Outstanding
Diluted EPS: Adjusts for potential dilution from convertibles, ESOPs, warrants, and similar instruments.
What it measures: Profit attributable to each equity share.
3. Price-to-Book Ratio (P/B Ratio)
Formula: P/B Ratio = Market Price per Share ÷ Book Value per Share
Book Value per Share = Shareholders' Equity ÷ Number of Equity Shares Outstanding
Interpretation:
- P/B = 1 means the stock is trading at book value
- P/B above 1 means the market values the company above book value
- P/B below 1 may indicate undervaluation, weak returns, asset quality concerns, or financial stress
This ratio is particularly important for banks, NBFCs, and asset-heavy businesses.
4. Dividend Yield
Formula: Dividend Yield = Dividend per Share ÷ Market Price per Share × 100
What it measures: Cash dividend return relative to current market price.
5. Dividend Payout Ratio
Formula: Dividend Payout Ratio = Dividends Paid ÷ Net Profit × 100
What it measures: The share of profits distributed as dividends rather than retained in the business.
6. Price-to-Sales Ratio (P/S Ratio)
Formula: P/S Ratio = Market Capitalisation ÷ Annual Revenue
Use case: Useful where earnings are volatile, low, or temporarily negative.
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DuPont Analysis - Decomposing ROE
DuPont Analysis breaks down Return on Equity into three component drivers:
ROE = Net Profit Margin × Asset Turnover × Equity Multiplier
Where:
- Net Profit Margin = Net Profit ÷ Revenue
- Asset Turnover = Revenue ÷ Total Assets
- Equity Multiplier = Total Assets ÷ Shareholders' Equity
Why DuPont Analysis Matters
Two companies can report the same ROE for very different reasons.
| Company | Net Profit Margin | Asset Turnover | Equity Multiplier | ROE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Company A | 15% | 1.2x | 1.0x | 18% |
| Company B | 3% | 3.0x | 2.0x | 18% |
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Company A earns its ROE mainly through stronger margins with low leverage. Company B earns the same ROE through thin margins, very high turnover, and higher leverage. The quality and risk profile are not the same.
Five-Factor DuPont
ROE = Tax Burden × Interest Burden × EBIT Margin × Asset Turnover × Equity Multiplier
This version separates the impact of taxes and financing cost more clearly.
Worked DuPont Example
Sharma Manufacturing Ltd., FY 2025-26:
- Revenue: ₹20,00,000
- Net Profit: ₹2,40,000
- Total Assets: ₹16,00,000
- Shareholders' Equity: ₹10,00,000
Calculation:
- Net Profit Margin = 2,40,000 ÷ 20,00,000 = 12%
- Asset Turnover = 20,00,000 ÷ 16,00,000 = 1.25x
- Equity Multiplier = 16,00,000 ÷ 10,00,000 = 1.60x
ROE = 12% × 1.25 × 1.60 = 24%
Important: The company achieves a strong 24% ROE through a combination of healthy margins, reasonable asset efficiency, and moderate leverage.
Cash Conversion Cycle - The Integrated Efficiency Metric
The Cash Conversion Cycle integrates three working capital efficiency ratios into a single measure.
Formula: CCC = DIO + DSO - DPO
Where:
- DIO = Days Inventory Outstanding = 365 ÷ Inventory Turnover
- DSO = Days Sales Outstanding = 365 ÷ Debtors Turnover
- DPO = Days Payable Outstanding = 365 ÷ Creditors Turnover
CCC Interpretation
| CCC | Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Negative CCC | Business collects cash from customers before paying suppliers |
| 0-30 days | Short cash cycle |
| 30-60 days | Moderate working capital requirement |
| 60-90 days | Material working capital lock-up |
| Above 90 days | Heavy working capital requirement |
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Worked CCC Example - Sharma Manufacturing Ltd.
| Metric | Value | Calculation |
|---|---|---|
| Inventory Turnover | 6.0x | COGS ₹12,00,000 ÷ Avg Inventory ₹2,00,000 |
| DIO | 61 days | 365 ÷ 6.0 |
| Debtors Turnover | 6.0x | Credit Sales ₹18,00,000 ÷ Avg Debtors ₹3,00,000 |
| DSO | 61 days | 365 ÷ 6.0 |
| Creditors Turnover | 6.67x | Purchases ₹10,00,000 ÷ Avg Creditors ₹1,50,000 |
| DPO | 55 days | 365 ÷ 6.67 |
| CCC | 67 days | 61 + 61 - 55 |
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A CCC of 67 days means the business needs to finance roughly 67 days of inventory and receivables, after adjusting for supplier credit.
Ratio Benchmarks by Industry - Indian Sector Norms
No ratio should be interpreted without industry context. A current ratio of 1.2 may be weak for one business and normal for another.
The ranges below are broad operating reference ranges and not fixed legal standards.
| Sector | Current Ratio | Net Profit Margin | Debt-to-Equity | Asset Turnover | ROCE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IT Services | 2.0-4.0x | 15-25% | Low | 0.8-1.5x | High |
| FMCG | 1.0-2.0x | 8-18% | Low to moderate | 1.5-3.0x | High |
| Manufacturing (Capital Goods) | 1.5-2.5x | 6-12% | Moderate | 0.8-1.5x | Moderate |
| Steel / Metals | 1.0-1.5x | Cyclical | Moderate to high | 0.8-1.2x | Cyclical |
| Pharma | 1.5-3.0x | 10-20% | Low to moderate | 0.8-1.5x | Strong |
| Retail (Organised) | 0.8-1.5x | 2-8% | Moderate | 2.0-4.0x | Moderate |
| Real Estate / Construction | 1.0-2.0x | Project-dependent | Often high | Low | Project-dependent |
| Hospitality | 0.8-1.5x | Cyclical | Moderate to high | 0.5-1.0x | Moderate |
| Renewable Energy | 1.0-1.5x | Stable but project-based | High | 0.2-0.5x | Moderate |
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Trend Analysis vs. Cross-Sectional Analysis
Trend Analysis (Time-Series)
This compares the same ratio for the same company across multiple periods.
| Year | Current Ratio | Net Profit Margin | DSO |
|---|---|---|---|
| FY 2022-23 | 2.1 | 12% | 45 days |
| FY 2023-24 | 1.8 | 11% | 52 days |
| FY 2024-25 | 1.5 | 9% | 61 days |
| FY 2025-26 | 1.3 | 8% | 67 days |
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This trend suggests weakening liquidity, declining margins, and slower collections.
Cross-Sectional Analysis (Peer Comparison)
This compares the same ratio across multiple companies in the same industry for the same period.
Trend analysis shows where the company is moving. Peer comparison shows how it stands relative to competitors. Strong analysis uses both.
13. How Ind AS Impacts Ratio Calculations
Companies following Ind AS should be alert to the impact of accounting standards on ratio interpretation.
| Ind AS Standard | Ratio Affected | Direction of Impact | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ind AS 116 (Leases) | EBITDA Margin | Usually increases EBITDA | Lease rent is replaced by depreciation and finance cost |
| Ind AS 116 | Debt-to-Equity | Can increase leverage | Lease liabilities are recognised on the balance sheet |
| Ind AS 116 | Asset Turnover | Can reduce ratio | Right-of-use assets increase total assets |
| Ind AS 116 | Current Ratio | Can reduce ratio | Current portion of lease liability increases current liabilities |
| Ind AS 115 | Revenue-based turnover ratios | May change | Revenue timing and contract accounting can affect the denominator |
| Ind AS 109 | Net Profit Margin | Can reduce margin | Expected credit loss provisions can reduce profit |
| Ind AS 109 | ROE / ROA | Can reduce returns | Higher provisions reduce profit and retained earnings |
| Ind AS 19 | Operating and return ratios | May change | Employee benefit measurement can affect expense and OCI presentation |
| Ind AS 113 | Balance sheet-based ratios | May change | Fair value measurement can change asset and liability values |
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When comparing one company with another, the accounting framework must be understood before drawing conclusions from the ratios.
Ratio Analysis for Banks and NBFCs - Sector-Specific Ratios
Banks and NBFCs operate differently from manufacturing or trading companies. Their liabilities are often funding sources, and their assets are largely loans and investments.
| Ratio | Formula | What It Measures |
|---|---|---|
| Net Interest Margin (NIM) | Net Interest Income ÷ Average Earning Assets × 100 | Profitability of the lending book |
| Gross NPA Ratio | Gross Non-Performing Assets ÷ Gross Advances × 100 | Asset quality before provisions |
| Net NPA Ratio | Net Non-Performing Assets ÷ Net Advances × 100 | Asset quality after provisions |
| Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR / CRAR) | Regulatory Capital ÷ Risk-Weighted Assets × 100 | Capital buffer against losses |
| CASA Ratio | Current + Savings Deposits ÷ Total Deposits × 100 | Share of low-cost deposits |
| Credit-Deposit Ratio | Total Loans ÷ Total Deposits × 100 | Extent of deposit deployment into loans |
| Return on Assets for Banks | Net Profit ÷ Average Total Assets × 100 | Profitability on the banking asset base |
| Provision Coverage Ratio (PCR) | Total Provisions ÷ Gross NPA × 100 | Provision strength against bad loans |
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These ratios are interpreted within the RBI prudential and Basel framework, along with business mix and asset quality trends.
Altman Z-Score - Using Ratios to Predict Financial Distress
The Altman Z-Score is a multi-ratio model used to assess financial distress risk, especially for manufacturing businesses.
Formula:
Z-Score = 1.2X₁ + 1.4X₂ + 3.3X₃ + 0.6X₄ + 1.0X₅
Where:
- X₁ = Working Capital ÷ Total Assets
- X₂ = Retained Earnings ÷ Total Assets
- X₃ = EBIT ÷ Total Assets
- X₄ = Market Value of Equity ÷ Total Liabilities
- X₅ = Revenue ÷ Total Assets
Interpretation
| Z-Score | Assessment |
|---|---|
| Above 2.99 | Lower distress risk |
| 1.81 to 2.99 | Grey zone |
| Below 1.81 | High distress risk |
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The Z-Score is useful as an early warning tool, but it is not a substitute for full credit analysis. It was originally developed for manufacturing businesses and should not be applied blindly across all sectors.
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Limitations of Accounting Ratio Analysis
Ratios are valuable, but they have clear limitations.
1. Window Dressing
Companies can temporarily improve year-end ratios by delaying payments, accelerating collections, or changing the timing of purchases and sales.
2. Accounting Policy Differences
Differences in depreciation methods, inventory valuation, provisioning, and revenue recognition can materially affect reported ratios.
3. Inflation Distortion
Historical cost accounting can distort asset-based ratios when older assets are carried at low book values compared with newer assets.
4. No Universal Standard Across Industries
A ratio that is healthy in one industry may be weak in another.
5. Ratios Are Backward-Looking
They describe past performance, not future certainty.
6. Quality of Earnings Is Not Fully Captured
A company may show a strong margin because of one-time gains, asset sales, or reversals rather than recurring operating strength.
7. Non-Financial Factors Are Missing
Management quality, governance, customer retention, brand strength, technology, and execution discipline do not directly appear in financial ratios.
Common Mistakes When Interpreting Ratios
| Mistake | Example | Correct Approach |
|---|---|---|
| Reading ratios in isolation | Current ratio of 2.5 declared healthy without checking inventory quality or trend | Compare with trend, peers, and cash flow |
| Ignoring accounting framework | EBITDA compared across companies without adjusting for lease accounting | Check accounting basis before comparison |
| Using year-end balances for turnover ratios | Debtors Turnover based only on closing debtors | Use average balances where possible |
| Confusing Debt-to-Equity with broader liabilities ratios | Total liabilities mixed with interest-bearing debt | Define the ratio clearly before interpreting |
| Assuming higher is always better | Very high current ratio treated as ideal | Ask whether capital is being used efficiently |
| Not adjusting for one-time items | High ROE in a year with exceptional gains | Normalise earnings where necessary |
| Using total sales instead of credit sales for DSO | DSO based on all sales including cash sales | Use credit sales for collection analysis |
| Ignoring cash flow statement | Strong profit but weak collections and CFO | Cross-check profit-based ratios with cash flow |
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Worked Comprehensive Example - Sharma Manufacturing Ltd.
Financial Statements (FY 2025-26)
| Item | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| Revenue (all credit sales) | 20,00,000 |
| Cost of Goods Sold | 12,00,000 |
| Gross Profit | 8,00,000 |
| Operating Expenses (excluding depreciation) | 3,00,000 |
| EBITDA | 5,00,000 |
| Depreciation | 80,000 |
| EBIT | 4,20,000 |
| Interest Expense | 1,40,000 |
| Profit Before Tax | 2,80,000 |
| Tax (25%) | 70,000 |
| Net Profit After Tax | 2,10,000 |
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Balance Sheet Items
| Item | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| Cash and Bank | 80,000 |
| Trade Receivables | 3,00,000 |
| Inventory | 2,00,000 |
| Current Assets | 5,80,000 |
| Fixed Assets (Net Block) | 10,20,000 |
| Total Assets | 16,00,000 |
| Trade Payables | 1,50,000 |
| Short-term Borrowings | 1,30,000 |
| Current Liabilities | 2,80,000 |
| Long-term Debt | 5,20,000 |
| Shareholders' Equity | 8,00,000 |
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Calculated Ratios
| Category | Ratio | Calculation | Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liquidity | Current Ratio | 5,80,000 ÷ 2,80,000 | 2.07:1 |
| Liquidity | Quick Ratio | (5,80,000 - 2,00,000) ÷ 2,80,000 | 1.36:1 |
| Liquidity | Cash Ratio | 80,000 ÷ 2,80,000 | 0.29:1 |
| Profitability | Gross Profit Margin | 8,00,000 ÷ 20,00,000 | 40% |
| Profitability | Net Profit Margin | 2,10,000 ÷ 20,00,000 | 10.5% |
| Profitability | EBITDA Margin | 5,00,000 ÷ 20,00,000 | 25% |
| Returns | ROA | 2,10,000 ÷ 16,00,000 | 13.1% |
| Returns | ROE | 2,10,000 ÷ 8,00,000 | 26.25% |
| Returns | ROCE | 4,20,000 ÷ (16,00,000 - 2,80,000) | 31.8% |
| Solvency | Debt-to-Equity | (5,20,000 + 1,30,000) ÷ 8,00,000 | 0.81:1 |
| Solvency | Interest Coverage | 4,20,000 ÷ 1,40,000 | 3.0x |
| Efficiency | Inventory Turnover | 12,00,000 ÷ 2,00,000 | 6.0x (61 days) |
| Efficiency | Debtors Turnover | 20,00,000 ÷ 3,00,000 | 6.67x (55 days) |
| Efficiency | Asset Turnover | 20,00,000 ÷ 16,00,000 | 1.25x |
| DuPont | DuPont ROE | 10.5% × 1.25 × 2.0 | 26.25% |
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Summary
Sharma Manufacturing shows comfortable liquidity, strong profitability, moderate leverage, adequate interest coverage, and reasonable collection efficiency.
If trade payables of ₹1,50,000 represent the relevant average payables base and credit purchases are ₹10,00,000, then creditors turnover is 6.67 times and DPO is about 55 days.
The CCC using the figures above is:
CCC = 61 days + 55 days - 55 days = 61 days
That means the business funds about 61 days of operating cycle before cash is fully recovered.
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Conclusion
Accounting ratios are one of the most practical ways to convert financial statements into business insight. A standalone number from the balance sheet or statement of profit and loss says very little by itself. Once that number is expressed as a ratio, compared over time, and read against peers and business context, it becomes much more meaningful.
The story Sharma Manufacturing's ratios tell in FY 2025-26 is of a business with comfortable liquidity, strong returns, moderate leverage, and a manageable working capital cycle. That kind of clarity comes much faster through ratio analysis than through raw financial statement figures alone.
For companies following Ind AS, ratio interpretation requires additional care because accounting treatment can affect EBITDA, liabilities, assets, revenue timing, and profitability. That does not reduce the importance of ratios. It increases the importance of understanding what sits behind them.
